draft-arkko-iab-internet-consolidation-01.txt		draft-arkko-internet-consolidation.txt
	Network Working Group J. Arkko		Network Working Group J. Arkko
	Internet-Draft Ericsson		Internet-Draft Ericsson
	Intended status: Informational B. Trammell		Intended status: Informational B. Trammell
	Expires: September 13, 2019 ETH Zurich		Expires: January 10, 2020 ETH Zurich
	M. Nottingham		M. Nottingham
	Fastly		Fastly
	C. Huitema		C. Huitema
	Private Octopus Inc.		Private Octopus Inc.
	M. Thomson		M. Thomson
	Mozilla		Mozilla
	J. Tantsura		J. Tantsura
	Nuage Networks		Apstra, Inc.
	N. ten Oever		N. ten Oever
	University of Amsterdam		University of Amsterdam
	March 12, 2019		July 09, 2019
	Considerations on Internet Consolidation and the Internet Architecture		Considerations on Internet Consolidation and the Internet Architecture
	draft-arkko-iab-internet-consolidation-01		draft-arkko-iab-internet-consolidation-02
	Abstract		Abstract
	Many of us have held a vision of the Internet as the ultimate		Many of us have held a vision of the Internet as the ultimate
	distributed platform that allows communication, the provision of		distributed platform that allows communication, the provision of
	services, and competition from any corner of the world. But as the		services, and competition from any corner of the world. But as the
	Internet has matured, it seems to also feed the creation of large,		Internet has matured, it seems to also feed the creation of large,
	centralised entities in many areas. This phenomenon could be looked		centralised entities in many areas. This phenomenon could be looked
	at from many different angles, but this memo considers the topic from		at from many different angles, but this memo considers the topic from
	the perspective of how available technology and Internet architecture		the perspective of how available technology and Internet architecture
	skipping to change at page 1, line 48		skipping to change at page 1, line 48
	Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering		Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
	Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute		Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute
	working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet-		working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet-
	Drafts is at http://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.		Drafts is at http://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.
	Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months		Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
	and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any		and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
	time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference		time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
	material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."		material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."
	This Internet-Draft will expire on September 13, 2019.		This Internet-Draft will expire on January 10, 2020.
	Copyright Notice		Copyright Notice
	Copyright (c) 2019 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the		Copyright (c) 2019 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
	document authors. All rights reserved.		document authors. All rights reserved.
	This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal		This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
	Provisions Relating to IETF Documents		Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
	(http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of		(http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
	publication of this document. Please review these documents		publication of this document. Please review these documents
	skipping to change at page 2, line 31		skipping to change at page 2, line 31
	Many of us have held a vision of the Internet as the ultimate		Many of us have held a vision of the Internet as the ultimate
	distributed platform that allows communication, the provision of		distributed platform that allows communication, the provision of
	services, and competition from any corner of the world. But as the		services, and competition from any corner of the world. But as the
	Internet has matured, it seems to also feed the creation of large,		Internet has matured, it seems to also feed the creation of large,
	centralised entities in many areas.		centralised entities in many areas.
	We use the term Internet consolidation to refer to the process of the		We use the term Internet consolidation to refer to the process of the
	increasing control over Internet infrastructure and services by a		increasing control over Internet infrastructure and services by a
	small set of organizations. Such concentration has an obvious effect		small set of organizations. Such concentration has an obvious effect
	on traffic flows or whose services and systems are in daily use by		on traffic flows or on services and systems that are daily used by a
	large population of Internet users, but it can also create secondary		large population of Internet users. However, it can also create
	effects, where the abiity to collect information or to affect		secondary effects, where the ability to collect information or to
	something is concentrated in the small set of organizations.		affect something is concentrated in that small set of organizations.
	Consolidation may also affect technology choices and the evolution of		Consolidation may also affect technology choices and the evolution of
	the Internet architecture, e.g., large organizations or organizations		the Internet architecture. For example, large organizations or
	providing important technology components may have a significant		organizations providing important technology components may have a
	impact on what technology is deployed for large numbers of users or		significant impact on what technology is deployed for large numbers
	by other organizations.		of users or by other organizations.
	Our first question is whether Internet is indeed consolidating? It		Our first question is whether the Internet is indeed consolidating.
	certainly appears so, though more quantitative research on this topic		It certainly appears so, but more quantitative research on this topic
	would be welcome. It is also possible that there's only a perception		would be welcome. It is also possible that there is only a
	of consolidation, as market forces have caused business changes in		perception of consolidation, as market forces have caused business
	new areas of business. Arguably, today's consolidation areas seem to		changes in new areas of business. Arguably, today's consolidation
	be more in the application space than further down in the stack or in		areas seem to be more in the application layer than further down in
	the operating systems, as was the case some years ago. The second		the stack or in operating systems, as was the case some years ago.
	question is if we're seeing consolidation simply moving to new areas.		The second question is if we are seeing consolidation simply moving
			to new areas.
	This phenomenon could be looked at from many different angles, but		This phenomenon could be looked at from many different angles, but
	this memo considers the topic from the perspective of how available		this memo considers the topic from the perspective of how available
	technology and Internet architecture drives different market		technology and Internet architecture drives different market
	directions. Our third question is if the Internet technology has		directions. Our third question is if the Internet technology has
	influenced the consolidation trends in some manner? And conversely,		influenced the consolidation trends in some manner. And conversely,
	the fourth question asks how is Internet consolidation influencing		the fourth question asks how Internet consolidation is influencing
	the development of the Internet infrastructure and architecture?		the development of the Internet infrastructure and architecture.
	The engineering remit at the IETF is to focus on technology, but of		The engineering remit at the IETF is to focus on technology, but of
	course we also want to understand the implications and externalities		course we also want to understand the implications and externalities
	of the technical arrangements we design. Technology affects		of the technical arrangements we design. Technology affects
	economics and vice versa. The Internet technology community		economics and vice versa. The Internet technology community
	continues to make decisions that have ramifications on Internet		continues to make decisions that have ramifications on Internet
	systems, just as we are subject to forces that affect them.		systems, just as we are subject to forces that affect them.
	As technologists, our fourth question is whether there are changes in		As technologists, our fourth question is whether there are changes in
	technology that would help reduce those large-player advantages that		technology that would help reduce those large-player advantages that
	are technically-driven.		are technically-driven.
	This memo reviews areas where consolidation may be occurring in the		This memo reviews areas where consolidation may be occurring in the
	Internet, and discusses the potential reasons for this. The memo		Internet, and discusses the potential reasons for this. The memo
	starts by review other work in this area in Section 2. Section 3		starts by reviewing other work in this area in Section 2. Section 3
	discusses consolidation and the reasons behind the creation of larger		discusses consolidation and the reasons behind the creation of larger
	entities, and Section 4 looks at some actions that might alleviate		entities, and Section 4 looks at some actions that might alleviate
	the situation.		the situation.
	If you are interested on this or other architecture-related topics,		If you are interested on this or other architecture-related topics,
	please subscribe to the IAB architecture-discuss mailing list as one		please subscribe to the IAB architecture-discuss mailing list as one
	forum for discussion. Similarly, the Internet Society has chosen		forum for discussion. Similarly, the Internet Society has chosen
	consolidation as a focus topic for their year 2019 activities. Their		consolidation as a focus topic for their year 2019 activities. Their
	report is in [ISOC].		report is in [ISOC].
	2. Other Work		2. Other Work
	One of the causes for the current consolidation of the Internet		One of the causes for the current consolidation of the Internet
	infrastructure can be traced back to some of the assumptions that		infrastructure can be traced back to some of the assumptions that
	were made during the commercialization of the Internet in the early		were made during the commercialization of the Internet in the early
	1990s [Abbate], even though [RFC1192] already describes some		1990s [Abbate], despite [RFC1192] describing some potential issues
	potential issues that could arise. Overall it was expected the		that could arise. Overall it was expected the combination of
	combination of commercialization, together with the technical and		commercialization, together with the technical and architectural
	architectural characteristics of the Internet, such as its modularity		characteristics of the Internet, such as its modularity and layering
	and layering principles, would lead to perfect markets, free		principles, would lead to perfect markets, free competition and
	competition and decentralized structures [LitanRivlin].		decentralized structures [LitanRivlin].
	But as we know now, this did not happen entirely as expected. Some		But as we know now, this did not happen entirely as expected. Some
	even argue that 'market concentrations, control and power struggles		even argue that 'market concentrations, control and power struggles
	are categories to adequately describe the fundamental dynamics of the		are categories to adequately describe the fundamental dynamics of the
	commercial Internet' [DolataSchrape]. While the privatization was		commercial Internet' [DolataSchrape]. While the privatization was
	supposed to lead to competition and innovation [Cowheyetal]		supposed to lead to competition and innovation [Cowheyetal]
	[VanSchewick], some argue that it actually led to the emergence of		[VanSchewick], some argue that it actually led to the emergence of
	Internet oligopolies [Mansell] [Smyrnaios].		Internet oligopolies [Mansell] [Smyrnaios].
	Current scientific economic thinking harbors two different schools		Current scientific economic thinking harbors two different schools of
	vis a vis efficient markets and monopolies. The school based on Adam		thought vis-a-vis efficient markets and monopolies. The school of
	Smith argues that unfettered markets tend to concentration of wealth		thought based on Adam Smith argues that unfettered markets tend to
	and income, whereas liberal economist believe in efficient markets		concentration of wealth and income, whereas liberal economists
	that stimulate competition.		believe in efficient markets that stimulate competition.
	On the other hand, according to Joseph Stiglitz 'many sectors -		On the other hand, according to Joseph Stiglitz, 'many sectors -
	telecoms, cable TV, digital branches from social media to Internet		telecommunications, cable TV, digital branches from social media to
	search, health insurance, pharmaceuticals, agro-business, and many		Internet search, health insurance, pharmaceuticals, agro-business,
	more - cannot be understood through the lens of competition'		and many more - cannot be understood through the lens of competition'
	[Stiglitz]. The considerations of technologists and policy makers at		[Stiglitz]. The considerations of technologists and policy makers at
	the time of the commercialization and privatization of the Internet		the time of the commercialization and privatization of the Internet
	infrastructure might have been based on a belief in efficient		infrastructure might have been based on a belief in efficient
	markets, whereas we are now finding out this might not always be how		markets, whereas we are now finding out this might not always be how
	markets function.		markets function.
			Recently there is a growing body of literature that the currently
			observed consolidation into oligopolies and monopolies can be
			described as a failure of economic policy, which could be addressed
			with revamped, or improved anti-trust policies [Wu] [Khan]. On the
			other hand there are those who criticize these proposals for their
			economic determinism; merger reviews, company break-ups and
			'trustbusting' do not necessarily change the structure of a market.
			Technology might actually have a role to play in this as well. The
			IETF in specific, and the Internet governance regime complex [Nye] in
			general, has been designed as a distributed arrangement to prevent
			capture of the infrastructure by a single interest group or actor.
			Where power or control was centralized, specific governance
			arrangements were put into place to counter the centralization of
			power.
	It cannot be denied that 'market actors have contributed immensely to		It cannot be denied that 'market actors have contributed immensely to
	the evolution of the Internet in terms of investment, products,		the evolution of the Internet in terms of investment, products,
	services, and infrastructure, and the government's light-handed		services, and infrastructure, and the government's light-handed
	approach to regulation has given producers and consumers substantial		approach to regulation has given producers and consumers substantial
	freedom to innovate and to self-regulate with respect to many issues		freedom to innovate and to self-regulate with respect to many issues
	affecting the Internet community in ways that have produced		affecting the Internet community in ways that have produced
	substantial social benefits' [Frischmann]. But the current		substantial social benefits' [Frischmann]. But the current
	consolidation in ownership of and control over the Internet		consolidation in ownership of and control over the Internet
	infrastructure was not foreseen [Clark], and arguably the loss of		infrastructure was not foreseen [Clark], and arguably the loss of
	decentralized control goes against its design objectives. For		decentralized control goes against its design objectives. For
	skipping to change at page 5, line 15		skipping to change at page 5, line 28
	3. Factors Driving Consolidation		3. Factors Driving Consolidation
	Consolidation is driven by economic factors relating to scale and		Consolidation is driven by economic factors relating to scale and
	ability to easily reach a large market of users over the Internet.		ability to easily reach a large market of users over the Internet.
	This kind of setting tends to enable winners to take large market		This kind of setting tends to enable winners to take large market
	shares, whether those winners came about through the model that		shares, whether those winners came about through the model that
	liberal economists believe in or the model that Adam Smith believes		liberal economists believe in or the model that Adam Smith believes
	in.		in.
	The most visible aspects of this involve well-recognized Internet		The most visible aspects of this involve well-recognized Internet
	services. Internet Society's report summarised the market position		services. The Internet Society's report summarised the market
	of popular Internet service brands as follows [ISOC]:		position of popular Internet service brands as follows [ISOC]:
	o Facebook and Google have been estimated to account for 84% of		o Facebook and Google have been estimated to account for 84% of
	global digital advertising investment (excluding China).		global digital advertising investment (excluding China).
	o Amazon is expected to account for 49.1% of all online retail		o Amazon is expected to account for 49.1% of all online retail
	spending in the US. Similarly, Alibaba is estimated to have close		spending in the US. Similarly, Alibaba is estimated to have close
	to 60% of the e-commerce market in China.		to 60% of the e-commerce market in China.
	o Google alone holds 90% of the global search market, over 60% of		o Google alone holds 90% of the global search market, over 60% of
	web browsers, and has the number 1 (by far) mobile operating		web browsers, and has the number 1 (by far) mobile operating
	system (Android).		system (Android).
	o Facebook - incorporating Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp, and		o Facebook - incorporating Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp, and
	Instagram - holds 4 of the world's top 6 social media platforms.		Instagram - holds 4 of the world's top 6 social media platforms.
	But it is important to recognize that the Internet is a complex		But it is important to recognize that the Internet is a complex
	ecosystem. There are many underlying services whose diversity, or		ecosystem. There are many underlying services whose diversity, or
	lack thereof, are as important as that of, say, consumer-visible		lack thereof, are as important as that of, say, consumer-visible
	social networks. For instance, the diversity of cloud services,		social networks. For instance, the diversity of cloud services,
	operating systems, browser engines is as important as that as of		operating systems, and browser engines is as important as that as of
	application stores or the browsers themselves.		application stores or the browsers themselves.
	Of course, the Internet allows plenty of choice both in these and		Of course, the Internet allows plenty of choice in these and other
	other areas. Too many or too few choices create different kinds of		areas. Too many or too few choices create different kinds of
	problems.		problems.
	It would be useful to break these general factors and observations		It would be useful to break these general factors and observations
	down a bit further. In particular, it is useful to distinguish		down a bit further. In particular, it is useful to distinguish
	market or economic factors from technical factors.		market or economic factors from technical factors.
	3.1. Economics		3.1. Economics
	Scaling benefits are natural for many types of businesses. And many		Scaling benefits are natural for many types of businesses. And many
	Internet-based businesses can potentially serve a very large customer		Internet-based businesses can potentially serve a very large customer
	skipping to change at page 6, line 43		skipping to change at page 7, line 9
	Entities with a large role in a market place tend to have inertia, of		Entities with a large role in a market place tend to have inertia, of
	course through having many customers, but also due to their		course through having many customers, but also due to their
	interconnectedness with the rest of the ecosystem. These		interconnectedness with the rest of the ecosystem. These
	interconnections can range from business relationships to peering		interconnections can range from business relationships to peering
	connections, linking, and the use of various infrastructure services		connections, linking, and the use of various infrastructure services
	from an entity as building blocks in applications.		from an entity as building blocks in applications.
	These interconnections make it difficult for a market to move away		These interconnections make it difficult for a market to move away
	from a large entity. Indeed, even for an individual it can be a		from a large entity. Indeed, even for an individual it can be a
	challenge to not use the most commonly used Internet services		challenge not to use the most commonly used Internet services
	[Gizmodo].		[Gizmodo].
	Optimistic technologists ("digital libertarians") tend to have a		Optimistic technologists ("digital libertarians") tend to believe
	beliefs that states have limited ability to regulate the Internet:		that states have limited ability to regulate the Internet: "The Net
	"The Net interprets censorship as damage and routes around it"		interprets censorship as damage and routes around it" [Gilmore].
	[Gilmore]. However, as argued by [Boyle] states may have multiple		However, as argued by [Boyle] states may have multiple ways to
	ways to influence and monitor the Internet. One of the issues		influence and monitor the Internet. One of the issues related to
	related to consolidation is that it tends to be easier to exert		consolidation is that it tends to be easier to exert control of few
	control of few large entities, than a large set of small, distributed		large entities, than a large set of small, distributed players. This
	players. This concern is particularly acute around intellectual		concern is particularly acute around intellectual property rights or
	property rights or surveillance capabilities, particularly when		surveillance capabilities, particularly when extra-territorial
	extra-territorial requirements are placed on the large entities.		requirements are placed on the large entities. These entities cannot
	These entities cannot avoid comforming to regulation and laws in any		avoid comforming to regulation and laws in any of the locations they
	of the locations they have presence in.		have presence in.
	As a result, there's an added angle of interconnectedness with		As a result, there's an added angle of interconnectedness with
	governments. At the same time, this of course also provides an		governments. At the same time, this of course also provides an
	avenue for control of market forces, e.g., in the form of competition		avenue for control of market forces, e.g., in the form of competition
	law.		law.
	3.3. Data- and Capital-intensive Services		3.3. Data- and Capital-intensive Services
	The scaling advantages are only getting larger with the advent of AI-		The scaling advantages are only getting larger with the advent of AI-
	and machine learning -based technologies.		and machine learning-based technologies.
	The more users a service has, the more data is available for training		The more users a service has, the more data is available for training
	machine learning models, and the better the service becomes, bringing		machine learning models, and the better the service becomes, bringing
	again more users. This feedback loop and the general capital-		again more users. This feedback loop and the general capital-
	intensive nature of the technology (data and processing at scale)		intensive nature of the technology (data and processing at scale)
	makes it likely that the largest companies are ahead in the use of		makes it likely that the largest companies are ahead in the use of
	these technologies.		these technologies.
	One could also take the pessimistic view that many of the ongoing		One could also take the pessimistic view that many of the ongoing
	disputes in standards organizations relate to which market actors		disputes in standards organizations relate to which market actors
	will ultimately be able to collect the more data from private persons		will ultimately be able to collect the more data from private persons
	and how. The question isn't as much about the protection of the		and how. The question isn't as much about the protection of these
	user's privacy but rather whether one or another industry (or		persons' privacy but rather whether some industry (or country) will
	country) will be able to benefit from access to data.		be able to benefit from access to data.
	3.4. Permissionless Innovation		3.4. Permissionless Innovation
	The email vs. social media example also highlights the interesting		The email vs. social media example also highlights the interesting
	roles of interoperability and the "permissionless innovation"		roles of interoperability and the "permissionless innovation"
	principle - the idea that a network can be simple but still powerful		principle - the idea that a network can be simple but still powerful
	enough that essentially any application could be built on top of it		enough that essentially any application could be built on top of it
	without needing any special support from anyone else. Permissionless		without needing any special support from anyone else. Permissionless
	innovation has brought us all the innovative applications that we		innovation has brought us all the innovative applications that we
	enjoy today, on top of a highly interoperable underlying network,		enjoy today, on top of a highly interoperable underlying network,
	skipping to change at page 8, line 7		skipping to change at page 8, line 25
	applications.		applications.
	Paradoxically, if the underlying network is sufficiently powerful,		Paradoxically, if the underlying network is sufficiently powerful,
	the applications on top can evolve without similar pressures for		the applications on top can evolve without similar pressures for
	interoperability, leading to the closed but highly valuable services		interoperability, leading to the closed but highly valuable services
	discussed above. We call this the Permissionless Completeness		discussed above. We call this the Permissionless Completeness
	Problem.		Problem.
	3.5. Fundamentals of Communication		3.5. Fundamentals of Communication
	There are also fundamental issues. For instance, speed of light;		There are also fundamental issues, such as the speed of light. Low-
	low-latency services can fundamentally only be provided through		latency services can fundamentally only be provided through globally
	globally distributed data centers. These are often provided built by		distributed data centers. These are often provided and/or built by
	large organizations, although collaborative and data center or cloud		large organizations, although collaborative data center or cloud
	computing service approaches also exist.		computing service approaches also exist.
	A similar issue has arisen in recent years around large-scale denial-		A similar issue has arisen in recent years around large-scale denial-
	of-service attacks, and how various entities can deal with them.		of-service attacks, and how various entities can deal with them.
	While the largest attacks affect all players (see, for instance, the		While the largest attacks affect all players (see, for instance, the
	Dyn attacks in October 2016), it is also true that large cloud- and		Dyn attacks in October 2016), it is also true that large cloud- and
	content delivery providers can better deal with such attacks due to		content-delivery providers can better deal with such attacks due to
	their scale. This is one reason that attracts many network services		their scale. This is one reason that attracts many network services
	to such providers.		to such providers.
	3.6. Technology Factors		3.6. Technology Factors
	One of the key questions is whether we are seeing developments that		One of the key questions is whether we are seeing developments that
	are driven by economic factors or whether fundamental reasons or lack		are driven by economic factors or whether fundamental reasons or lack
	available technology drives particular models. For instance,		of available technology drives particular models. For instance,
	centralised solutions might desirable due to business incentives, or		centralised solutions might be desirable due to business incentives,
	they might be necessary because there is no distributed,		or they might be necessary because there is no distributed,
	collaborative solution.		collaborative solution.
	For instance, some technical issues have historically not been easy		Some technical issues have historically not been easy to solve, such
	to solve, such as e-mail spam, which has led to reliance on non-		as e-mail spam, which has led to reliance on non-technical solutions.
	technical solutions. Today, it is becoming increasingly difficult to		Today, it is becoming increasingly difficult to run your own mail
	run your own mail services, essentially forcing many organizations		services, essentially forcing many organizations and individuals to
	and individuals to employ larger providers. The issues relate		employ larger providers. The issues relate directly to size of
	directly to size of entities; no one can afford to disconnect from		entities; no one can afford to disconnect from the largest providers.
	the largest providers. But as a small entity, there is little		But as a small entity, there is little leverage to convince peer
	leverage to convince peer entities or various supporting white/		entities or various supporting white/blacklist entities to deal with
	blacklist entities to deal with you properly.		you properly.
	Many Internet services are based on gathering data about users, and		Many Internet services are based on gathering data about users, and
	using that data for, for instance, targeted advertisements. More		using that data for targeted advertisements. More data from more
	data from more users makes it possible to run a service more		users makes it possible to run a service more accurately or with
	accurately or with better results; here again scale brings		better results; here again scale brings advantages.
	advantages.
	Another trend is that more and more content is becoming available		Another trend is that more and more content is becoming available
	locally, from a content delivery or provider function directly on		locally, from a content delivery or provider function directly on
	your own ISP's network. We predict that eventually most content will		one's own ISP network. We predict that eventually most content will
	be delivered this way, reducing the role that global IP connections		be delivered this way, reducing the role that global IP connectivity
	across the Internet play. By some metrics this has already happened;		across the Internet plays. By some metrics this has already
	what practical - positive or negative - impacts might this have on		happened; what practical - positive or negative - impacts might this
	the Internet technology?		have on the Internet technology?
	There are also security tradeoffs. Large entities are generally		There are also security tradeoffs. Large entities are generally
	better equipped to move to more recent and more secure technology.		better equipped to move to more recent and more secure technology.
	For instance, the Domain Name System (DNS) shows signs of ageing but		For instance, the Domain Name System (DNS) shows signs of ageing but
	due to the legacy of deployed systems, has changed very slowly.		due to the legacy of deployed systems, has changed very slowly.
	Newer technology developed at the IETF enables DNS queries to be		Newer technology developed in accordance with IETF standards enables
	performed confidentially, but its deployment is happening mostly in		DNS queries to be performed confidentially, but its deployment is
	browsers that use global DNS resolver services, such as Cloudflare's		happening mostly in browsers that use global DNS resolver services,
	1.1.1.1 or Google's 8.8.8.8. This results in faster evolution and		such as Cloudflare's 1.1.1.1 or Google's 8.8.8.8. This results in
	better security for end users.		faster evolution and better security for end users.
	However, if one steps back and considers the overall security effects		However, if one steps back and considers the overall security effects
	of these developments, the resulting effects can be different. While		of these developments, the resulting effects can be different. While
	the security of the actual protocol exchanges improves with the		the security of the actual protocol exchanges improves with the
	introduction of this new technology, at the same time this implies a		introduction of this new technology, at the same time this implies a
	move from using a worldwide distributed set of DNS resolvers into,		move from using a worldwide distributed set of DNS resolvers into,
	again, more centralised global resolvers. While these resolvers are		again, more centralised global resolvers. While these resolvers are
	very well maintained (and a great service), they are potentially		very well maintained (and a great service), they are potentially
	high-value targets for pervasive monitoring and Denial-of-Service		high-value targets for pervasive monitoring and Denial-of-Service
	(DoS) attacks. In 2016, for example, DoS attacks were launched		(DoS) attacks. In 2016, for example, DoS attacks were launched
	against Dyn, one of the largest DNS providers, leading to some		against Dyn, one of the largest DNS providers, leading to some
	outages.		outages.
	4. Call to Action		4. Call to Action
	Are there assumptions about the Internet architecture that no longer		Are there assumptions about the Internet architecture that no longer
	hold in a world where larger, more centralised entities provide big		hold in a world where larger, more centralised entities provide big
	parts of the Internet service? If the world changes, the Internet		parts of the Internet service? If the world changes, the Internet
	and its technology/architecture may have to match those changes.		and its technology/architecture may have to match those changes.
	It appears that level the playing field for new entrants or small		It appears that leveling the playing field for new entrants or small
	players brings potential benefits. Are there technical solutions		players brings potential benefits. Are there technical solutions
	that are missing today?		that are missing today?
	Of course, it may well be that technology improvements are hard to		Of course, it may well be that technology improvements are hard to
	come by. Nevertheless, recognizing the risks of consolidation in		come by. Nevertheless, recognizing the risks of consolidation in
	both current and proposed future technologies is the first step in		both current and proposed future technologies is the first step in
	proactively avoiding those risks where possible.		proactively avoiding those risks where possible.
	Assuming that one does not wish for regulation, technologies that		Assuming that one does not wish for regulation, technologies that
	support distributed architectures, open source implementations of		support distributed architectures, open source implementations of
	currently centralised network functions, or help increase user's		currently centralised network functions, or helping increase users'
	control can be beneficial. Federation, for example, would help		control can be beneficial. Federation, for example, would help
	enable distributed services in situations where smaller entities		enable distributed services in situations where smaller entities
	would like to collaborate.		would like to collaborate.
	Similarly, in an asymmetric power balance between users and services,		Similarly, in an asymmetric power balance between users and services,
	tools that enable the user to control what information is provided to		tools that enable the user to control what information is provided to
	a particular service can be very helpful. Some such tools exist, for		a particular service can be very helpful. Some such tools exist, for
	instance, in the privacy and tracking-prevention modes of popular		instance, in the privacy and prevention-tracking modes of popular
	browsers but why are these modes not the default, and could we		browsers, but why are these modes not the default, and could we
	develop them further?		develop them further?
	It is also surprising that in the age of software-defined everything,		It is also surprising that in the age of software-defined everything,
	we can program almost anything else except the globally provided,		we can program almost anything else except the globally provided,
	packaged services. Opening up interfaces would allow the building of		packaged services. Opening up interfaces would allow the building of
	additional, innovative services, and better match with users' needs.		additional, innovative services, and better match users' needs.
	Silver bullets are rare, of course. Internet service markets		Silver bullets are rare, of course. Internet service markets
	sometimes fragment rather than cooperate through federation. And the		sometimes fragment rather than cooperate through federation. And the
	asymmetric power balances are easiest changed with data that is in		asymmetric power balances are easiest changed with data that is user-
	your control, but it is much harder to change when someone else holds		controlled, but it is much harder to change when someone else holds
	it. Nevertheless, the exploration of solutions to ensure the		it. Nevertheless, the exploration of solutions to ensure the
	Internet is kept open for new innovations and in the control of users		Internet is kept open for new innovations and in the control of users
	is very important.		is very important.
	o What IETF topics that should be pursued to address some of the		o What IETF topics that should be pursued to address some of the
	issues around consolidation? Some of the topics for consideration		issues around consolidation? Some of the topics for consideration
	are discussed in Section 4.1 and Section 4.2.		are discussed in Section 4.1 and Section 4.2.
	o Are there open source efforts that should be pursued or kept being		o Are there open source efforts that should be pursued or continue
	pursued to ensure that a diversity of operators and networks can		to be pursued to ensure that a diversity of operators and networks
	use a particular technology? This is further discussed in		can use a particular technology? This is further discussed in
	{{opensource]].		{{opensource]].
	o What measurements relating to the developments centralization or		o What measurements relating to the development of centralization or
	consolidation should be pursued? And what other research, such as		consolidation should be pursued? And what other research, such as
	distributed Internet architectures, should be driven forward?		distributed Internet architectures, should be driven forward?
	Some potential topics are discussed in Section 4.4.		Some potential topics are discussed in Section 4.4.
	4.1. Open Interfaces		4.1. Open Interfaces
	Standards and open source efforts continue to build many open		Standards and open source efforts continue to build many open
	interfaces and APIs that allow systems interoperability and tailoring		interfaces and APIs that allow systems interoperability and tailoring
	of services. In some cases, however, the availability of open		of services. In some cases, however, the availability of open
	interfaces definitions and software has not lead to the realization		interfaces definitions and software has not led to the realization of
	of actual interfaces in this open manner. For instance, different		actual interfaces in this open manner. For instance, different
	instant messaging systems have had a technical ability to be		instant messaging systems have had a technical ability to be
	interoperable with other systems, just like e-mail is interoperable		interoperable with other systems, just like e-mail is interoperable
	across systems, but have chosen to be disconnected.		across systems, but have chosen to be disconnected.
	Work in determining what open interfaces can provide benefits to		Work in determining what open interfaces can provide benefits to
	users as well be successfully deployed in the Internet ecosystem		users as well be successfully deployed in the Internet ecosystem
	would of course be useful.		would of course be useful.
	4.2. Specific Standardization Choices		4.2. Specific Standardization Choices
	Sometimes the issue is not the availability of interfaces as such,		Sometimes the issue is not the availability of interfaces as such,
	but rather fundamental architectural choices with regards to how		but rather fundamental architectural choices with regards to how
	Internet systems should be built.		Internet systems should be built.
	Often this relates to how centralized or distributed deployments are		Often this relates to how centralized or distributed deployments are
	targeted. And even if a distributed, broad deployment model is		targeted. And even if a distributed, broad deployment model is
	targeted, he expectations may not match reality when economies of		targeted, expectations may not match reality when economies of scale,
	scale, DDoS resilience, market consolidation, or other factors have		DDoS resilience, market consolidation, or other factors have come
	come into play. These factors can result in the deployed reality		into play. These factors can result in the deployed reality being
	being highly concentrated.		highly concentrated.
	This is a serious issue for the Internet, as concentrated,		This is a serious issue for the Internet, as concentrated,
	centralized deployment models present risks to user choice, privacy,		centralized deployment models present risks to user choice, privacy,
	and future protocol evolution. On occasion, the differences to		and future protocol evolution. On occasion, the differences to
	expectations can be immediate, but can also occur much later.		expectations can be immediate, but can also occur much later.
	Some examples of these issue include current work in DNS where we may		Some examples of these issues include current work in DNS where we
	see concentration through the use of globally available common		may see concentration through the use of globally available common
	resolver services, which evolve rapidly and can offer better		resolver services, which evolve rapidly and can offer better
	security. But the concentration of these queries into few services		security. But the concentration of these queries into a few services
	creates new security and privacy concerns.		creates new security and privacy concerns.
	Another example is email, which started out as many providers running		Another example is email, which started out as many providers running
	in a largely uncoordinated fashion, but which has since then seen		in a largely uncoordinated fashion, but which has since then seen
	significant market consolidation and a need for coordination to		significant market consolidation and a need for coordination to
	defend against attacks such as spam. The coordination and		defend against attacks such as spam. The coordination and
	centralized defense mechanisms scale better for large entities, which		centralized defense mechanisms scale better for large entities, which
	has fueled additional consolidation.		has fueled additional consolidation.
	Awareness of these issues while working on standards would be useful,		Awareness of these issues while working on standards would be useful,
	so that the issues can be taken into account and appropriately		so that the issues can be taken into account and appropriately
	mitigated. To begin with, those of us Interested in the broader		mitigated. To begin with, those of us interested in the broader
	questions about Internet development and Internet researchers are		questions about Internet research and development are needed to
	needed to identify some of the effects that new technology		identify some of the effects that new technology developments may
	developments may pose.		pose.
	4.3. Open Source		4.3. Open Source
	Many key Internet infrastructure services (e.g., DNS servers), end-		Many key Internet infrastructure services (e.g., DNS servers), end-
	user applications (e.g., browsers) and technology components (e.g.,		user applications (e.g., browsers) and technology components (e.g.,
	operating systems or protocol implementations) are commonly		operating systems or protocol implementations) are commonly
	implemented using open source solutions.		implemented using open source solutions.
	This is often true even if there's a large entity that is in charge		This is often true even if there is a large entity that is in charge
	of large fraction of development and deployment for a particular		of a large fraction of development and deployment for a particular
	technology. This is a good thing, as it ensures that others have a		technology. This is a good thing, as it provides a means for others
	fair chance of changing the technology in question, should the large		to have a fair chance of changing the technology in question, should
	entity drive their use of the technology in some direction that does		the large entity drive their use of the technology in some direction
	not benefit the users. For instance, users and other organizations		that does not benefit the users. For instance, users and other
	have traditionally been able to either run their own browser versions		organizations have traditionally been able to either run their own
	or provided extensions that suit their needs better than the default		browser versions or provided extensions that suit their needs better
	system.		than the default system.
	As a result, continuing to have this ecosystem is important safety		As a result, continuing to have this ecosystem is an important safety
	valve and competition opportunity.		valve and competition opportunity.
	4.4. Research Challenges		4.4. Research Challenges
	There are number of different research directions for which further		There are a number of different research directions for which further
	work would be useful.		work would be useful.
	The first is about measurements; is the Internet indeed		The first is about measurements; is the Internet indeed
	consolidating, and if so, by how much, and in what aspects? Also,		consolidating, and if so, by how much, and in what aspects? Also,
	where are Internet's traffic flows concentrating, and how is this		where are the Internet's traffic flows concentrating, and how is this
	changing over time?		changing over time?
	There are also questions about the trends and their relationships to		There are also questions about the trends and their relationships to
	technology: Has Internet technology influenced the consolidation		technology: Has Internet technology influenced the consolidation
	trends in some manner? And conversely, how Internet consolidation		trends in some manner? And conversely, how does Internet
	influences the development of the Internet infrastructure and		consolidation influence the development of Internet infrastructure
	architecture?		and architecture?
	Finally, research on topics that would likely yield results that		Finally, research on topics that would likely yield results that
	increase the diversity and de-centralization in the Internet would		increase the diversity and de-centralization in the Internet would
	obviously be welcome. This can include any de-centralized		obviously be welcome. This can include any de-centralized
	technologies, but in particular distributed Internet architecture is		technologies, but in particular distributed Internet architecture is
	an Interesting topic.		an interesting topic.
	5. Contributors		5. Contributors
	Much of the text in this memo is from a blog article written by Jari		Much of the text in this memo is from a blog article written by Jari
	Arkko, Mark Nottingham, Christian Huitema, Martin Thomson, and Brian		Arkko, Mark Nottingham, Christian Huitema, Martin Thomson, and Brian
	Trammell for the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), and from a blog		Trammell for the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), and from a blog
	article written by Jari Arkko and Brian Trammell APNIC and RIPE.		article written by Jari Arkko and Brian Trammell APNIC and RIPE.
	Some parts of the text have also come from a future workshop		Some parts of the text have also come from a future workshop
	description developed in the IAB, primarily by Christian Huitema and		description developed in the IAB, primarily by Christian Huitema and
	Ted Hardie.		Ted Hardie.
	6. Acknowledgements		6. Acknowledgements
	The authors would like to thank IAB members, Geoff Huston, Amelia		The authors would like to thank IAB members, Geoff Huston, Amelia
	Andersdotter, Gonzalo Camarillo, Mirjam Kuehne, Robert Mitchell, Olaf		Andersdotter, Gonzalo Camarillo, Mirjam Kuehne, Robert Mitchell, Olaf
	Kolkman, and many others for interesting discussions in this problem		Kolkman, Greg Skinner and many others for interesting discussions in
	space.		this problem space. The authors would also like to thank all
			participants in the 2019 Design Expectations vs. Deployment Reality
			(DEDR) IAB workshop held in Kirkkonummi, Finland, as well as the
			participants in the 2019 EuroDIG workshop on "Internet consolidation
			- opportunities and challenges".
	7. Informative References		7. Informative References
	[Abbate] Abbate, J., "Inventing the Internet", MIT Press , 2000,		[Abbate] Abbate, J., "Inventing the Internet", MIT Press , 2000,
	<https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/inventing-internet>.		<https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/inventing-internet>.
	[Boyle] "Foucault in Cyberspace: Surveillance, Sovereignty, and		[Boyle] "Foucault in Cyberspace: Surveillance, Sovereignty, and
	Hardwired Censors", Duke Law School,		Hardwired Censors", Duke Law School,
	https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/		https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/
	faculty_scholarship/619/ , 1997.		faculty_scholarship/619/ , 1997.
	skipping to change at page 14, line 5		skipping to change at page 14, line 22
	internet-article.html) , December 1993.		internet-article.html) , December 1993.
	[Gizmodo] "I Cut The 'Big Five' Tech Giants From My Life. It Was		[Gizmodo] "I Cut The 'Big Five' Tech Giants From My Life. It Was
	Hell", Gizmodo, https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2019/02/i-cut-		Hell", Gizmodo, https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2019/02/i-cut-
	the-big-five-tech-giants-from-my-life-it-was-hell/ ,		the-big-five-tech-giants-from-my-life-it-was-hell/ ,
	February 2019.		February 2019.
	[ISOC] "Consolidation in the Internet economy", Internet Society,		[ISOC] "Consolidation in the Internet economy", Internet Society,
	https://future.internetsociety.org/2019/ , 2019.		https://future.internetsociety.org/2019/ , 2019.
			[Khan] Khan, L., "Amazon's Antritrust Paradox", The Yale Law
			Journal 126:710 , 2017.
	[LitanRivlin]		[LitanRivlin]
	Litan, R. and A. Rivlin, "Projecting the Economic Impact		Litan, R. and A. Rivlin, "Projecting the Economic Impact
	of the Internet", American Economic Review 91 (2), pp.		of the Internet", American Economic Review 91 (2), pp.
	313-317 , 2001.		313-317 , 2001.
	[Mansell] Mansell, R. and M. Javary, "Emerging Internet Oligopolies:		[Mansell] Mansell, R. and M. Javary, "Emerging Internet Oligopolies:
	A Political Economy Analysis", In Miller, Edythe S.and		A Political Economy Analysis", In Miller, Edythe S.and
	Samuels, Warren J., (eds.) An Institutionalist Approach to		Samuels, Warren J., (eds.) An Institutionalist Approach to
	Public Utilities Regulation. Michigan State University		Public Utilities Regulation. Michigan State University
	Press, East Lansing, Michigan, pp. 162-201. ISBN		Press, East Lansing, Michigan, pp. 162-201. ISBN
	9780870136245 , 2002, <https://core.ac.uk/download/		9780870136245 , 2002, <https://core.ac.uk/download/
	pdf/204420.pdf>.		pdf/204420.pdf>.
			[Nye] Nye, J., "The Regime Complex for Managing Global Cyber
			Activities. Global Commission on Internet Governance",
			CIGI, Global Commission on Internet Governance , 2014.
	[RFC1192] Kahin, B., "Commercialization of the Internet summary		[RFC1192] Kahin, B., "Commercialization of the Internet summary
	report", RFC 1192, DOI 10.17487/RFC1192, November 1990,		report", RFC 1192, DOI 10.17487/RFC1192, November 1990,
	<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1192>.		<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1192>.
	[RFC1958] Carpenter, B., Ed., "Architectural Principles of the		[RFC1958] Carpenter, B., Ed., "Architectural Principles of the
	Internet", RFC 1958, DOI 10.17487/RFC1958, June 1996,		Internet", RFC 1958, DOI 10.17487/RFC1958, June 1996,
	<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1958>.		<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1958>.
	[RFC3935] Alvestrand, H., "A Mission Statement for the IETF",		[RFC3935] Alvestrand, H., "A Mission Statement for the IETF",
	BCP 95, RFC 3935, DOI 10.17487/RFC3935, October 2004,		BCP 95, RFC 3935, DOI 10.17487/RFC3935, October 2004,
	skipping to change at page 14, line 45		skipping to change at page 15, line 20
	Stiglitz, J., "Joseph Stiglitz: Are markets efficient, or		Stiglitz, J., "Joseph Stiglitz: Are markets efficient, or
	do they tend towards monopoly? The verdict is in", 2016,		do they tend towards monopoly? The verdict is in", 2016,
	<https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/05/joseph-stiglitz-		<https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/05/joseph-stiglitz-
	are-markets-efficient-or-do-they-tend-towards-monopoly-		are-markets-efficient-or-do-they-tend-towards-monopoly-
	the-verdict-is-in/>.		the-verdict-is-in/>.
	[VanSchewick]		[VanSchewick]
	van Schewick, B., "Internet Architecture and Innovation",		van Schewick, B., "Internet Architecture and Innovation",
	MIT Press , 2012.		MIT Press , 2012.
			[Wu] Wu, T., "The Curse of Bigness", Columbia Global Reports,
			New York, New York , 2018.
	Authors' Addresses		Authors' Addresses
	Jari Arkko		Jari Arkko
	Ericsson		Ericsson
	Email: jari.arkko@piuha.net		Email: jari.arkko@piuha.net
	Brian Trammell		Brian Trammell
	ETH Zurich		ETH Zurich
	Email: ietf@trammell.ch		Email: ietf@trammell.ch
	Mark Nottingham		Mark Nottingham
	Fastly		Fastly
	Email: mnot@mnot.net		Email: mnot@mnot.net
	skipping to change at page 15, line 23		skipping to change at page 16, line 4
	Christian Huitema		Christian Huitema
	Private Octopus Inc.		Private Octopus Inc.
	Email: huitema@huitema.net		Email: huitema@huitema.net
	Martin Thomson		Martin Thomson
	Mozilla		Mozilla
	Email: martin.thomson@gmail.com		Email: martin.thomson@gmail.com
	Jeff Tantsura		Jeff Tantsura
	Nuage Networks		Apstra, Inc.
	Email: jefftant.ietf@gmail.com		Email: jefftant.ietf@gmail.com
	Niels ten Oever		Niels ten Oever
	University of Amsterdam		University of Amsterdam
	Email: mail@nielstenoever.net		Email: mail@nielstenoever.net
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